Hydroxychloroquine 75mg/5ml oral solution
Prescription only
Requires a prescription from a doctor or prescriber
Oral solution
75mg/5ml
Oral
Drugs used in rheumatic diseases and gout
Active ingredients:
Hydroxychloroquine
No active safety alerts
Official documents, adverse reaction reporting, and safety monitoring
Report a side effect
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Official medicine documents
Source: MHRA Products DatabaseOGL 3.0
Updated 3 months ago(16 Jan 2026)Safety monitoring data
Yellow Card reports
MHRA
The MHRA Yellow Card scheme collects reports of suspected side effects from healthcare professionals and patients. View the Drug Analysis Profile (iDAP) for real-world adverse reaction data.
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Suspected adverse reactions reported for Hydroxychloroquine
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Submit a Yellow Card report to the MHRA
Data from the MHRA Yellow Card scheme. A reported reaction does not necessarily mean the medicine caused it. Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
EudraVigilance
EMA
The European Medicines Agency (EMA) collects suspected adverse reaction reports from across the EU/EEA through the EudraVigilance system. Search for safety data on this medicine.
View EudraVigilance report
Suspected adverse reactions reported for Hydroxychloroquine
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Learn about EU pharmacovigilance and safety monitoring
EudraVigilance data is published by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). A suspected adverse reaction is not necessarily caused by the medicine.
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WHO defined daily dose (DDD)
516 mg
Not a recommended dose. The DDD is the assumed average maintenance dose per day for a drug used for its main indication in adults. It is a statistical measure used for research and comparison purposes only.
Source: WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology, distributed via NHS dm+d BNF mapping files. Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
Therapeutically similar medicines
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Hydroxychloroquine 300mg tablets
Tablet
300mg
Same therapeutic group
Hydroxychloroquine 400mg/5ml oral suspension
Oral suspension
400mg/5ml
Same therapeutic group
Primaquine 15mg tablets
Tablet
15mg
Same therapeutic group
Primaquine 2.5mg/5ml oral suspension
Oral suspension
2.5mg/5ml
Same therapeutic group
Hydroxychloroquine 108mg/5ml oral solution
Oral solution
108mg/5ml
Same therapeutic group
Similarity based on WHO Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classification and NHS BNF section grouping. Source data: NHS dm+d via TRUD (OGL v3.0), WHO ATC/DDD Index.
NHS prescribing volume and spending trends
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Clinical guidelines and formulary information
British National Formulary
Hydroxychloroquine
BNF
Drug monograph — bnf.nice.org.ukSource: British National Formulary, NICE. Joint Formulary Committee. Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
NICE clinical guidance(7)
Rheumatoid arthritis in adults: management (NG100)
NG100
NICE guideline
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Technology appraisal
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Evidence summary
Updated Jan 2017Adalimumab, etanercept, infliximab and abatacept for treating moderate rheumatoid arthritis after conventional DMARDs have failed (TA715)
TA715
Technology appraisal
Updated Jul 2021Adalimumab, etanercept, infliximab, certolizumab pegol, golimumab, tocilizumab and abatacept for rheumatoid arthritis not previously treated with DMARDs or after conventional DMARDs only have failed (TA375)
TA375
Technology appraisal
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TA752
Technology appraisal
Updated Dec 2021Source: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Contains public sector information licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
Check stock at pharmacies and supply information
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Pharmacy stock checkers
Search for this medicine at major UK pharmacy chains. These links open the retailer's own website — results depend on their current online catalogue.
Supply & product information
Official product databases and supply status monitoring
Pharmacy links redirect to the retailer's own search and do not represent real-time stock levels. emc (electronic medicines compendium) is operated by Datapharm Ltd. Shortage information sourced from NHS Specialist Pharmacy Service (SPS), sps.nhs.uk.
Codes for healthcare professionals and prescribing systems
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These codes are used by healthcare IT systems and prescribers to identify this medicine.
NHS UK identifiers
Browse tools
SNOMED CT and dm+d codes from NHS TRUD (Technology Reference data Update Distribution), licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0. BNF codes from NHS Business Services Authority (NHSBSA). ATC codes from the WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology (whocc.no).
Active and completed clinical studies from ClinicalTrials.gov
Show details
Searching UK clinical trials...
Source: ClinicalTrials.gov, a database of the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM), National Institutes of Health (NIH). Data accessed via ClinicalTrials.gov API v2. Trial information is provided for research purposes and does not constitute medical advice.
Pharmacology and chemical data from DrugBank
Key facts
Drug status
Approved
Major interactions
None known
Half-life
123.5 days
Mechanism
The exact mechanisms of hydroxychloroquine are unknown.
Food interactions
1 warning
Human targets
4 targets
Data: DrugBank · CC BY-NC 4.0
Pharmacokinetics at a glance
Absorption
67-74%
Hydroxychloroquine is 67-74% bioavailable.
[A183047]
Bioavailability of the R and S enantiomers were not significantly different.
[A183047]
Following…
[A183047]
Bioavailability of the R and S enantiomers were not significantly different.
[A183047]
Following…
Half-life
123.5 days
A half-life of 123.5 days in plasma was observed following a single 200 mg oral PLAQUENIL dose to healthy male volunteers.…
Protein binding
64%
The S enantiomer of hydroxychloroquine is 64% protein bound in plasma.
[A183047]…
[A183047]…
Volume of distribution
5522L
Hydroxychloroquine is extensively distributed to tissues; it has a volume of distribution of 5522L from blood and 44,257L from plasma.
[L47576][A183047]…
[L47576][A183047]…
Metabolism
Hydroxychloroquine is N-dealkylated by CYP3A4 to the active metabolite desethylhydroxychloroquine, as well as the inactive metabolites desethylchloroquine and bidesethylchloroquine.
[A183056][A183059]…
[A183056][A183059]…
Elimination
40-50%
40-50% of hydroxychloroquine is excreted renally, while only 16-21% of a dose is excreted in the urine as unchanged drug.
[A183047]…
[A183047]…
Clearance
96mL/min
The clearance of hydroxychloroquine is 96mL/min.
[A183047]
Renal clearance of unchanged drug was approximately 16% to 30%.
[L47576]
[A183047]
Renal clearance of unchanged drug was approximately 16% to 30%.
[L47576]
Pharmacokinetic data: DrugBank · CC BY-NC 4.0
Status:
Approved
Investigational
Small molecule
About this compound
Hydroxychloroquine is a racemic mixture consisting of an R and S enantiomer.[A183047] Hydroxychloroquine is an aminoquinoline like [chloroquine].[L8072] It is a commonly prescribed medication in the treatment of uncomplicated malaria, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic discoid lupus erythematosus, and systemic lupus erythematosus.[L8072] Hydroxychloroquine is also used for the prophylaxis of malaria in regions where chloroquine resistance is unlikely.[L8072] It was developed during World War II as a derivative of [quinacrine] with less severe side effects.[A183092] Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are both being investigated for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2.[A192132]
The FDA emergency use authorization for hydroxychloroquine and [chloroquine] in the treatment of COVID-19 was revoked on 15 June 2020.[L14312]
Hydroxychloroquine was granted FDA approval on 18 April 1955.[L8072]
A recent study reported a fatality in the group being treated with hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19.[A192546]
The FDA emergency use authorization for hydroxychloroquine and [chloroquine] in the treatment of COVID-19 was revoked on 15 June 2020.[L14312]
Hydroxychloroquine was granted FDA approval on 18 April 1955.[L8072]
A recent study reported a fatality in the group being treated with hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19.[A192546]
Properties:
solid
Avg. mass: 335.87 Da
DrugBank indication
Hydroxychloroquine is indicated for the prophylaxis of malaria where chloroquine resistance is not reported, treatment of uncomplicated malaria (caused by P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, or P. vivax), chronic discoid lupus erythematosus, systemic lupus erythematosus, acute rheumatoid arthritis, and chronic rheumatoid arthritis.
[L8072]
[L8072]
Also known as(69)
(±)-hydroxychloroquine
2-((4-((7-chloro-4-quinolyl)amino)pentyl)ethylamino)ethanol
2-(N-(4-(7-chlor-4-chinolylamino)-4-methylbutyl)ethylamino)ethanol
7-chloro-4-(4-(ethyl(2-hydroxyethyl)amino)-1-methylbutylamino)quinoline
7-chloro-4-(4-(N-ethyl-N-β-hydroxyethylamino)-1-methylbutylamino)quinoline
7-chloro-4-[4-(N-ethyl-N-β-hydroxyethylamino)-1-methylbutylamino]quinoline
7-chloro-4-[5-(N-ethyl-N-2-hydroxyethylamino)-2-pentyl]aminoquinoline
Hidroxicloroquina
Dosage forms(21)
Tablet (Oral) — 400 mg
Tablet (Oral) — 200.000 mg
Tablet (Oral) — 200.00 mg
Tablet, coated (Oral) — 400 mg
Tablet, sugar coated (Oral) — 100 mg
Tablet, sugar coated (Oral) — 200 mg
Tablet, film coated (Oral)
Tablet (Oral) — 100 mg/1
Molecular properties(19)
Drug interactions(1396)
Known interactions with other medications. Always consult a healthcare professional.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Denosumab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Peginterferon alfa-2a
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Peginterferon alfa-2a is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon alfa-n1
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon alfa-n1 is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon alfa-n3
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon alfa-n3 is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Peginterferon alfa-2b
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Peginterferon alfa-2b is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon gamma-1b
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon gamma-1b is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon alfa-2a
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon alfa-2a is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Aldesleukin
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Aldesleukin is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Gemtuzumab ozogamicin
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Gemtuzumab ozogamicin is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Pegaspargase
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Pegaspargase is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon beta-1b
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon beta-1b is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon alfacon-1
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon alfacon-1 is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Rituximab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Basiliximab
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Basiliximab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Muromonab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Ibritumomab tiuxetan
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Ibritumomab tiuxetan is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Tositumomab
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Tositumomab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Alemtuzumab
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Alemtuzumab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Alefacept is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Efalizumab
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Efalizumab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Antithymocyte immunoglobulin (rabbit)
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Antithymocyte immunoglobulin (rabbit) is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Interferon alfa-2b
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Interferon alfa-2b is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Daclizumab
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Daclizumab is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Phenylalanine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Phenylalanine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Flunisolide
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Flunisolide is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Bortezomib
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Bortezomib is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Cladribine
Moderate
Hydroxychloroquine may increase the immunosuppressive activities of Cladribine.
Carmustine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Carmustine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Amsacrine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Bleomycin is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Chlorambucil
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of seizure can be increased when Hydroxychloroquine is combined with Chlorambucil.
Raltitrexed
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Raltitrexed is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Mitomycin is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Bexarotene
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Bexarotene is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Vindesine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Floxuridine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Floxuridine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Indomethacin
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Indomethacin is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Tioguanine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Tioguanine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Vinorelbine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Vinorelbine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Dexrazoxane
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Dexrazoxane is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Beclomethasone dipropionate
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Beclomethasone dipropionate is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Streptozocin
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Streptozocin is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Trifluridine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Trifluridine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Gemcitabine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Gemcitabine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Betamethasone
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Betamethasone is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Teniposide
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Teniposide is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Chloramphenicol
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Chloramphenicol is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Lenalidomide
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Lenalidomide is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Altretamine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Altretamine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Zidovudine
Unknown severity
The risk or severity of adverse effects can be increased when Zidovudine is combined with Hydroxychloroquine.
Showing 50 of 1396 interactions
Food & lifestyle interactions
Take With Food
Take with food. Take with a meal or glass of milk.
Toxicity & overdose
Patients experiencing an overdose may present with headache, drowsiness, visual disturbances, cardiovascular collapse, convulsions, hypokalemia, rhythm and conduction disorders including QT prolongation, torsades de pointes, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation.
[L8072]
This may progress to sudden respiratory and cardiac arrest.
[L8072]
Overdose should be treated with immediate gastric lavage and activated charcoal at a dose of at least 5 times the hydroxychloroquine dose within 30 minutes.
[A183047][L8072]
Parenteral diazepam may be given to treat cardiotoxicity, transfusion may reduce serum concentrations of drug, patients should be monitored for at least 6 hours, fluids should be given, and ammonium chloride should be given to acidify urine and promote urinary excretion.
[L8072]
Patients may also be given epinephrine.
[A198852]
[L8072]
This may progress to sudden respiratory and cardiac arrest.
[L8072]
Overdose should be treated with immediate gastric lavage and activated charcoal at a dose of at least 5 times the hydroxychloroquine dose within 30 minutes.
[A183047][L8072]
Parenteral diazepam may be given to treat cardiotoxicity, transfusion may reduce serum concentrations of drug, patients should be monitored for at least 6 hours, fluids should be given, and ammonium chloride should be given to acidify urine and promote urinary excretion.
[L8072]
Patients may also be given epinephrine.
[A198852]
How it works
Mechanism of action
The exact mechanisms of hydroxychloroquine are unknown. It has been shown that hydroxychloroquine accumulates in the lysosomes of the malaria parasite, raising the pH of the vacuole.[A183074] This activity interferes with the parasite's ability to proteolyse hemoglobin, preventing the normal growth and replication of the parasite.[A183074] Hydroxychloroquine can also interfere with the action of parasitic heme polymerase, an enzyme that uses ferriprotoporphyrin IX (FP) released from hemoglobin as a substrate to form beta-hematin. By reducing the activity of heme polymerase without inhibiting the release of FP, hydroxychloroquine leads to the accumulation of FP in a toxic form.[A183080]
Hydroxychloroquine accumulation in human organelles also raise their pH, which inhibits antigen processing, prevents the alpha and beta chains of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II from dimerizing, inhibits antigen presentation of the cell, and reduces the inflammatory response.[A183074] Elevated pH in the vesicles may alter the recycling of MHC complexes so that only the high affinity complexes are presented on the cell surface.[A183074] Self peptides bind to MHC complexes with low affinity and so they will be less likely to be presented to autoimmune T cells.[A183074] Hydroxychloroquine also reduces the release of cytokines like interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor, possibly through inhibition of Toll-like receptors.[A183074][A198852]
The raised pH in endosomes, prevent virus particles (such as SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2) from utilizing their activity for fusion and entry into the cell.[A191625]
Hydroxychloroquine inhibits terminal glycosylation of ACE2, the receptor that SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 target for cell entry.[A191628][A191625] ACE2 that is not in the glycosylated state may less efficiently interact with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, further inhibiting viral entry.[A191625]
Hydroxychloroquine accumulation in human organelles also raise their pH, which inhibits antigen processing, prevents the alpha and beta chains of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II from dimerizing, inhibits antigen presentation of the cell, and reduces the inflammatory response.[A183074] Elevated pH in the vesicles may alter the recycling of MHC complexes so that only the high affinity complexes are presented on the cell surface.[A183074] Self peptides bind to MHC complexes with low affinity and so they will be less likely to be presented to autoimmune T cells.[A183074] Hydroxychloroquine also reduces the release of cytokines like interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor, possibly through inhibition of Toll-like receptors.[A183074][A198852]
The raised pH in endosomes, prevent virus particles (such as SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2) from utilizing their activity for fusion and entry into the cell.[A191625]
Hydroxychloroquine inhibits terminal glycosylation of ACE2, the receptor that SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 target for cell entry.[A191628][A191625] ACE2 that is not in the glycosylated state may less efficiently interact with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, further inhibiting viral entry.[A191625]
Pharmacodynamics
Hydroxychloroquine affects the function of lysosomes in humans as well as plasmodia.[A183074] Altering the pH of the lysosomes reduces low-affinity self-antigen presentation in autoimmune diseases and interferes with the ability of plasmodia to proteolyze hemoglobin for their energy requirements.[A183074] Hydroxychloroquine has a long duration of action as it may be taken on a weekly basis for some indications.[L8072] Hydroxychloroquine may lead to severe hypoglycemia and so diabetic patients are advised to monitor their blood glucose levels.[L8072]
Hydroxychloroquine is active against the erythrocytic forms of chloroquine-sensitive strains of P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax, and P. ovale. Hydroxychloroquine is not active against the gametocytes and exoerythrocytic forms including the hypnozoite liver stage forms of P. vivax and P. ovale.[L47576] Hydroxychloroquine is not effective against malaria in areas where chloroquine resistance has been reported.[L8072]
Hydroxychloroquine is active against the erythrocytic forms of chloroquine-sensitive strains of P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. vivax, and P. ovale. Hydroxychloroquine is not active against the gametocytes and exoerythrocytic forms including the hypnozoite liver stage forms of P. vivax and P. ovale.[L47576] Hydroxychloroquine is not effective against malaria in areas where chloroquine resistance has been reported.[L8072]
Pharmacokinetics
How the body processes this drug — absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination
Absorption
Hydroxychloroquine is 67-74% bioavailable.
[A183047]
Bioavailability of the R and S enantiomers were not significantly different.
[A183047]
Following a single 200 mg oral dose of hydroxychloroquine to healthy male volunteers, whole blood hydroxychloroquine Cmax was 129.6 ng/mL (plasma Cmax was 50.3 ng/mL) with Tmax of 3.3 hours (plasma Tmax 3.7 hours). Following a single oral hydroxychloroquine dose of 200 mg, the
mean fraction of the dose absorbed was 0.74 (compared to the administration of 155 mg of hydroxychloroquine intravenous infusion). Peak blood concentrations of metabolites were observed at the same time as peak levels of hydroxychloroquine.
[L47576]
After administration of single 155 mg and 310 mg intravenous doses, peak blood concentrations ranged from 1161 ng/mL to 2436 ng/mL (mean 1918 ng/mL) following the 155 mg infusion and 6 months following the 310 mg infusion.
Pharmacokinetic parameters were not significantly different over the therapeutic dose range of 155 mg and 310 mg indicating linear kinetics.
[L47576]
In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, there was large variability as to the fraction of the dose absorbed (i.e. 30 to 100%), and mean hydroxychloroquine levels were significantly higher in patients with less disease activity.
[L47576]
[A183047]
Bioavailability of the R and S enantiomers were not significantly different.
[A183047]
Following a single 200 mg oral dose of hydroxychloroquine to healthy male volunteers, whole blood hydroxychloroquine Cmax was 129.6 ng/mL (plasma Cmax was 50.3 ng/mL) with Tmax of 3.3 hours (plasma Tmax 3.7 hours). Following a single oral hydroxychloroquine dose of 200 mg, the
mean fraction of the dose absorbed was 0.74 (compared to the administration of 155 mg of hydroxychloroquine intravenous infusion). Peak blood concentrations of metabolites were observed at the same time as peak levels of hydroxychloroquine.
[L47576]
After administration of single 155 mg and 310 mg intravenous doses, peak blood concentrations ranged from 1161 ng/mL to 2436 ng/mL (mean 1918 ng/mL) following the 155 mg infusion and 6 months following the 310 mg infusion.
Pharmacokinetic parameters were not significantly different over the therapeutic dose range of 155 mg and 310 mg indicating linear kinetics.
[L47576]
In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, there was large variability as to the fraction of the dose absorbed (i.e. 30 to 100%), and mean hydroxychloroquine levels were significantly higher in patients with less disease activity.
[L47576]
Half-life
A half-life of 123.5 days in plasma was observed following a single 200 mg oral PLAQUENIL dose to healthy male volunteers. Urine hydroxychloroquine levels were still detectable after 3 months with approximately 10% of the dose excreted as the parent drug. Results following a single dose of a 200 mg tablet versus i.v. infusion (155 mg), demonstrated a half-life of about 40 days and a large volume of distribution.
Following chronic oral administration of hydroxychloroquine, the absorption half-life was approximately 3 to 4 hours and the terminal half-life ranged from 40 to 50 days.
[L47576]
Following chronic oral administration of hydroxychloroquine, the absorption half-life was approximately 3 to 4 hours and the terminal half-life ranged from 40 to 50 days.
[L47576]
Protein binding
The S enantiomer of hydroxychloroquine is 64% protein bound in plasma.
[A183047]
It is 50% bound to serum albumin and 29% bound to alpha-1-acid glycoprotein.
[A183047]
The R enantiomer is 37% protein bound in plasma.
[A183047]
It is 29% bound to serum albumin and 41% bound to alpha-1-acid glycoprotein.
[A183047]
In total, hydroxychloroquine is 50% protein bound in plasma.
[A183047]
[A183047]
It is 50% bound to serum albumin and 29% bound to alpha-1-acid glycoprotein.
[A183047]
The R enantiomer is 37% protein bound in plasma.
[A183047]
It is 29% bound to serum albumin and 41% bound to alpha-1-acid glycoprotein.
[A183047]
In total, hydroxychloroquine is 50% protein bound in plasma.
[A183047]
Volume of distribution
Hydroxychloroquine is extensively distributed to tissues; it has a volume of distribution of 5522L from blood and 44,257L from plasma.
[L47576][A183047]
[L47576][A183047]
Metabolism
Hydroxychloroquine is N-dealkylated by CYP3A4 to the active metabolite desethylhydroxychloroquine, as well as the inactive metabolites desethylchloroquine and bidesethylchloroquine.
[A183056][A183059]
Desethylhydroxychloroquine is the major metabolite.
[L8072]
[A183056][A183059]
Desethylhydroxychloroquine is the major metabolite.
[L8072]
Route of elimination
40-50% of hydroxychloroquine is excreted renally, while only 16-21% of a dose is excreted in the urine as unchanged drug.
[A183047]
5% of a dose is sloughed off in skin and 24-25% is eliminated through the feces.T671
[A183047]
5% of a dose is sloughed off in skin and 24-25% is eliminated through the feces.T671
Clearance
The clearance of hydroxychloroquine is 96mL/min.
[A183047]
Renal clearance of unchanged drug was approximately 16% to 30%.
[L47576]
[A183047]
Renal clearance of unchanged drug was approximately 16% to 30%.
[L47576]
Drug targets(4)
Proteins and enzymes this drug interacts with in the body
Toll-like receptor 7
TLR7
antagonist
Specific functiondouble-stranded RNA binding
Cellular location
Endoplasmic reticulum membrane
General function & pharmacology
Endosomal receptor that plays a key role in innate and adaptive immunity .
PMID:14976261 PMID:32433612
Controls host immune response against pathogens through recognition of uridine-containing single strand RNAs (ssRNAs) of viral origin or guanosine analogs .
PMID:12738885 PMID:27742543 PMID:31608988 PMID:32706371 PMID:35477763
Upon binding to agonists, undergoes dimerization that brings TIR domains from the two molecules into direct contact, leading to the recruitment of TIR-containing downstream adapter MYD88 through homotypic interaction .
PMID:27742543
In turn, the Myddosome signaling complex is formed involving IRAK4, IRAK1, TRAF6, TRAF3 leading to activation of downstream transcription factors NF-kappa-B and IRF7 to induce pro-inflammatory cytokines and interferons, respectively .
PMID:27742543 PMID:32706371
In plasmacytoid dendritic cells, RNASET2 endonuclease cooperates with PLD3 or PLD4 5'->3' exonucleases to process RNA and release 2',3'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (2',3'-cGMP) and cytidine-rich RNA fragments that occupy TLR7 ligand-binding pockets and trigger a signaling-competent state
PMID:14976261 PMID:32433612
Controls host immune response against pathogens through recognition of uridine-containing single strand RNAs (ssRNAs) of viral origin or guanosine analogs .
PMID:12738885 PMID:27742543 PMID:31608988 PMID:32706371 PMID:35477763
Upon binding to agonists, undergoes dimerization that brings TIR domains from the two molecules into direct contact, leading to the recruitment of TIR-containing downstream adapter MYD88 through homotypic interaction .
PMID:27742543
In turn, the Myddosome signaling complex is formed involving IRAK4, IRAK1, TRAF6, TRAF3 leading to activation of downstream transcription factors NF-kappa-B and IRF7 to induce pro-inflammatory cytokines and interferons, respectively .
PMID:27742543 PMID:32706371
In plasmacytoid dendritic cells, RNASET2 endonuclease cooperates with PLD3 or PLD4 5'->3' exonucleases to process RNA and release 2',3'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (2',3'-cGMP) and cytidine-rich RNA fragments that occupy TLR7 ligand-binding pockets and trigger a signaling-competent state
Toll-like receptor 9
TLR9
antagonist
Specific functioninterleukin-1 receptor binding
Cellular location
Endoplasmic reticulum membrane
General function & pharmacology
Key component of innate and adaptive immunity. TLRs (Toll-like receptors) control host immune response against pathogens through recognition of molecular patterns specific to microorganisms. TLR9 is a nucleotide-sensing TLR which is activated by unmethylated cytidine-phosphate-guanosine (CpG) dinucleotides .
PMID:14716310
Acts via MYD88 and TRAF6, leading to NF-kappa-B activation, cytokine secretion and the inflammatory response .
PMID:11564765 PMID:17932028
Controls lymphocyte response to Helicobacter infection (By similarity).
Upon CpG stimulation, induces B-cell proliferation, activation, survival and antibody production PMID:23857366
PMID:14716310
Acts via MYD88 and TRAF6, leading to NF-kappa-B activation, cytokine secretion and the inflammatory response .
PMID:11564765 PMID:17932028
Controls lymphocyte response to Helicobacter infection (By similarity).
Upon CpG stimulation, induces B-cell proliferation, activation, survival and antibody production PMID:23857366
DNA
cross-linking/alkylation
Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
ACE2
modulator
Specific functioncarboxypeptidase activity
Cellular location
Secreted
General function & pharmacology
Essential counter-regulatory carboxypeptidase of the renin-angiotensin hormone system that is a critical regulator of blood volume, systemic vascular resistance, and thus cardiovascular homeostasis .
PMID:27217402
Converts angiotensin I to angiotensin 1-9, a nine-amino acid peptide with anti-hypertrophic effects in cardiomyocytes, and angiotensin II to angiotensin 1-7, which then acts as a beneficial vasodilator and anti-proliferation agent, counterbalancing the actions of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II .
PMID:10924499 PMID:10969042 PMID:11815627 PMID:14504186 PMID:19021774
Also removes the C-terminal residue from three other vasoactive peptides, neurotensin, kinetensin, and des-Arg bradykinin, but is not active on bradykinin .
PMID:10969042 PMID:11815627
Also cleaves other biological peptides, such as apelins (apelin-13, [Pyr1]apelin-13, apelin-17, apelin-36), casomorphins (beta-casomorphin-7, neocasomorphin) and dynorphin A with high efficiency .
PMID:11815627 PMID:27217402 PMID:28293165
In addition, ACE2 C-terminus is homologous to collectrin and is responsible for the trafficking of the neutral amino acid transporter SL6A19 to the plasma membrane of gut epithelial cells via direct interaction, regulating its expression on the cell surface and its catalytic activity PMID:18424768 PMID:19185582
PMID:27217402
Converts angiotensin I to angiotensin 1-9, a nine-amino acid peptide with anti-hypertrophic effects in cardiomyocytes, and angiotensin II to angiotensin 1-7, which then acts as a beneficial vasodilator and anti-proliferation agent, counterbalancing the actions of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II .
PMID:10924499 PMID:10969042 PMID:11815627 PMID:14504186 PMID:19021774
Also removes the C-terminal residue from three other vasoactive peptides, neurotensin, kinetensin, and des-Arg bradykinin, but is not active on bradykinin .
PMID:10969042 PMID:11815627
Also cleaves other biological peptides, such as apelins (apelin-13, [Pyr1]apelin-13, apelin-17, apelin-36), casomorphins (beta-casomorphin-7, neocasomorphin) and dynorphin A with high efficiency .
PMID:11815627 PMID:27217402 PMID:28293165
In addition, ACE2 C-terminus is homologous to collectrin and is responsible for the trafficking of the neutral amino acid transporter SL6A19 to the plasma membrane of gut epithelial cells via direct interaction, regulating its expression on the cell surface and its catalytic activity PMID:18424768 PMID:19185582
Metabolizing enzymes(3)
Enzymes involved in drug metabolism — important for understanding drug interactions
Enzyme activity key
substrate
inhibitor
inducer
CYP3A4Cytochrome P450 3A4
substrate
CYP2D6Cytochrome P450 2D6
substrate
inhibitor
CYP2C8Cytochrome P450 2C8
substrate
Transporters(2)
Proteins that transport this drug across cell membranes
ATP-dependent translocase ABCB1
ABCB1
inhibitor
Specific functionABC-type xenobiotic transporter activity
Cellular location
Cell membrane
General function & pharmacology
Translocates drugs and phospholipids across the membrane .
PMID:2897240 PMID:35970996 PMID:8898203 PMID:9038218 PMID:35507548
Catalyzes the flop of phospholipids from the cytoplasmic to the exoplasmic leaflet of the apical membrane. Participates mainly to the flop of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, beta-D-glucosylceramides and sphingomyelins .
PMID:8898203
Energy-dependent efflux pump responsible for decreased drug accumulation in multidrug-resistant cells PMID:2897240 PMID:35970996 PMID:9038218
PMID:2897240 PMID:35970996 PMID:8898203 PMID:9038218 PMID:35507548
Catalyzes the flop of phospholipids from the cytoplasmic to the exoplasmic leaflet of the apical membrane. Participates mainly to the flop of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, beta-D-glucosylceramides and sphingomyelins .
PMID:8898203
Energy-dependent efflux pump responsible for decreased drug accumulation in multidrug-resistant cells PMID:2897240 PMID:35970996 PMID:9038218
Solute carrier organic anion transporter family member 1A2
SLCO1A2
inhibitor
Specific functionbile acid transmembrane transporter activity
Cellular location
Cell membrane
General function & pharmacology
Na(+)-independent transporter that mediates the cellular uptake of a broad range of organic anions such as the endogenous bile salts cholate and deoxycholate, either in their unconjugated or conjugated forms (taurocholate and glycocholate), at the plasmam membrane .
PMID:19129463 PMID:7557095
Responsible for intestinal absorption of bile acids (By similarity). Transports dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate (DHEAS), a major circulating steroid secreted by the adrenal cortex, as well as estrone 3-sulfate and 17beta-estradiol 17-O-(beta-D-glucuronate) .
PMID:11159893 PMID:12568656 PMID:19129463 PMID:23918469 PMID:25560245 PMID:9539145
Mediates apical uptake of all-trans-retinol (atROL) across human retinal pigment epithelium, which is essential to maintaining the integrity of the visual cycle and thus vision .
PMID:25560245
Involved in the uptake of clinically used drugs .
PMID:17301733 PMID:20686826 PMID:27777271
Capable of thyroid hormone transport (both T3 or 3,3',5'-triiodo-L-thyronine, and T4 or L-tyroxine) .
PMID:19129463 PMID:20358049
Also transports prostaglandin E2 .
PMID:19129463
Plays roles in blood-brain and -cerebrospinal fluid barrier transport of organic anions and signal mediators, and in hormone uptake by neural cells (By similarity). May also play a role in the reuptake of neuropeptides such as substance P/TAC1 and vasoactive intestinal peptide/VIP released from retinal neurons .
PMID:25132355
May play an important role in plasma and tissue distribution of the structurally diverse chemotherapeutic drugs methotrexate and paclitaxel .
PMID:23243220
Shows a pH-sensitive substrate specificity which may be ascribed to the protonation state of the binding site and leads to a stimulation of substrate transport in an acidic microenvironment .
PMID:19129463
Hydrogencarbonate/HCO3(-) acts as the probable counteranion that exchanges for organic anions .
PMID:19129463
May contribute to regulate the transport of organic compounds in testis across the blood-testis-barrier (Probable)
PMID:19129463 PMID:7557095
Responsible for intestinal absorption of bile acids (By similarity). Transports dehydroepiandrosterone 3-sulfate (DHEAS), a major circulating steroid secreted by the adrenal cortex, as well as estrone 3-sulfate and 17beta-estradiol 17-O-(beta-D-glucuronate) .
PMID:11159893 PMID:12568656 PMID:19129463 PMID:23918469 PMID:25560245 PMID:9539145
Mediates apical uptake of all-trans-retinol (atROL) across human retinal pigment epithelium, which is essential to maintaining the integrity of the visual cycle and thus vision .
PMID:25560245
Involved in the uptake of clinically used drugs .
PMID:17301733 PMID:20686826 PMID:27777271
Capable of thyroid hormone transport (both T3 or 3,3',5'-triiodo-L-thyronine, and T4 or L-tyroxine) .
PMID:19129463 PMID:20358049
Also transports prostaglandin E2 .
PMID:19129463
Plays roles in blood-brain and -cerebrospinal fluid barrier transport of organic anions and signal mediators, and in hormone uptake by neural cells (By similarity). May also play a role in the reuptake of neuropeptides such as substance P/TAC1 and vasoactive intestinal peptide/VIP released from retinal neurons .
PMID:25132355
May play an important role in plasma and tissue distribution of the structurally diverse chemotherapeutic drugs methotrexate and paclitaxel .
PMID:23243220
Shows a pH-sensitive substrate specificity which may be ascribed to the protonation state of the binding site and leads to a stimulation of substrate transport in an acidic microenvironment .
PMID:19129463
Hydrogencarbonate/HCO3(-) acts as the probable counteranion that exchanges for organic anions .
PMID:19129463
May contribute to regulate the transport of organic compounds in testis across the blood-testis-barrier (Probable)
Carriers(2)
Proteins that carry this drug through the body
Albumin
ALB
binder
Specific functionantioxidant activity
Cellular location
Secreted
General function & pharmacology
Binds water, Ca(2+), Na(+), K(+), fatty acids, hormones, bilirubin and drugs (Probable). Its main function is the regulation of the colloidal osmotic pressure of blood (Probable). Major zinc transporter in plasma, typically binds about 80% of all plasma zinc .
PMID:19021548
Major calcium and magnesium transporter in plasma, binds approximately 45% of circulating calcium and magnesium in plasma (By similarity).
Potentially has more than two calcium-binding sites and might additionally bind calcium in a non-specific manner (By similarity). The shared binding site between zinc and calcium at residue Asp-273 suggests a crosstalk between zinc and calcium transport in the blood (By similarity). The rank order of affinity is zinc > calcium > magnesium (By similarity).
Binds to the bacterial siderophore enterobactin and inhibits enterobactin-mediated iron uptake of E.coli from ferric transferrin, and may thereby limit the utilization of iron and growth of enteric bacteria such as E.coli .
PMID:6234017
Does not prevent iron uptake by the bacterial siderophore aerobactin PMID:6234017
PMID:19021548
Major calcium and magnesium transporter in plasma, binds approximately 45% of circulating calcium and magnesium in plasma (By similarity).
Potentially has more than two calcium-binding sites and might additionally bind calcium in a non-specific manner (By similarity). The shared binding site between zinc and calcium at residue Asp-273 suggests a crosstalk between zinc and calcium transport in the blood (By similarity). The rank order of affinity is zinc > calcium > magnesium (By similarity).
Binds to the bacterial siderophore enterobactin and inhibits enterobactin-mediated iron uptake of E.coli from ferric transferrin, and may thereby limit the utilization of iron and growth of enteric bacteria such as E.coli .
PMID:6234017
Does not prevent iron uptake by the bacterial siderophore aerobactin PMID:6234017
Alpha-1-acid glycoprotein 2
ORM2
binder
Cellular location
Secreted
General function & pharmacology
Functions as a transport protein in the blood stream. Binds various hydrophobic ligands in the interior of its beta-barrel domain. Also binds synthetic drugs and influences their distribution and availability.
Appears to function in modulating the activity of the immune system during the acute-phase reaction
Appears to function in modulating the activity of the immune system during the acute-phase reaction
Scientific references(11)
Lim H.S., Im J.S., Cho J.Y., Bae K.S., Klein T.A., Yeom J.S., Kim T.S., Choi J.S., Jang I.J., Park J.W.
Pharmacokinetics of hydroxychloroquine and its clinical implications in chemoprophylaxis against malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother
2009 Apr53(4):1468-75. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00339-08. Epub 2009 Feb 2
Furst D.E.
Pharmacokinetics of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine during treatment of rheumatic diseases.
Lupus
19965(1_suppl):11-15. doi: 10.1177/0961203396005001041
Collins K.P., Jackson K.M., Gustafson D.L.
Hydroxychloroquine: A Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Model in the Context of Cancer-Related Autophagy Modulation.
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
2018 Jun365(3):447-459. doi: 10.1124/jpet.117.245639. Epub 2018 Feb 8
Fox R.I.
Mechanism of action of hydroxychloroquine as an antirheumatic drug.
Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism
199323(2):82-91. doi: 10.1016/s0049-0172(10)80012-5
Chou A.C., Fitch C.D.
Heme polymerase: modulation by chloroquine treatment of a rodent malaria.
Life Science
199251(26):2073-8. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(92)90158-l
Shippey E.A., Wagler V.D., Collamer A.N.
Hydroxychloroquine: An old drug with new relevance.
Cleve Clinical Journal Medicine
2018 Jun85(6):459-467. doi: 10.3949/ccjm.85a.17034
Devaux C.A., Rolain J.M., Colson P., Raoult D.
New insights on the antiviral effects of chloroquine against coronavirus: what to expect for COVID-19? Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020 Mar 11:105938. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.
2020
105938
Vincent M.J., Bergeron E., Benjannet S., Erickson B.R., Rollin P.E., Ksiazek T.G., Seidah N.G., Nichol S.T.
Chloroquine is a potent inhibitor of SARS coronavirus infection and spread.
Virol Journal
2005 Aug 222:69. doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-2-69
Wang M., Cao R., Zhang L., Yang X., Liu J., Xu M., Shi Z., Hu Z., Zhong W., Xiao G.
Remdesivir and chloroquine effectively inhibit the recently emerged novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) in vitro.
Cell Research
2020 Mar30(3):269-271. doi: 10.1038/s41422-020-0282-0. Epub 2020 Feb 4
Gautret P., Lagier J.C., Parola P., Hoang V.T., Meddeb L., Mailhe M., Doudier B., Courjon J., Giordanengo V., Vieira V.E., Dupont H.T., Honore S., Colson P., Chabriere E., La Scola B., Rolain J.M., Brouqui P., Raoult D.
Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2020 Mar 20:105949. doi: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.
2020
105949
Chary M.A., Barbuto A.F., Izadmehr S., Hayes B.D., Burns M.M.
COVID-19: Therapeutics and Their Toxicities. J Med Toxicol. 2020 Apr 30. pii: 10.1007/s13181-020-00777-5.
doi: 10
1007/s13181-020-00777-5
ATC classification(1 code)
ATC P01BA02
Affected organisms(1)
Plasmodium
International brands(5)
Salt forms(1)
Hydroxychloroquine sulfate(DBSALT000096)
Experimental properties(2)
Commercial products(139)
Chemical identifiers
CAS, UNII, InChI Key and database cross-references
Show
Chemical identifiers
CAS, UNII, InChI Key and database cross-references
Linked compound data from DrugBank Open Data (CC BY-NC 4.0)
Hydroxychloroquine
Additional database identifiers
Drugs Product Database (DPD)
6506
ChemSpider
3526
BindingDB
50467780
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:15631
GenAtlas
TLR7
GeneCards
TLR7
GenBank Gene Database
AF240467
GenBank Protein Database
7330281
Guide to Pharmacology
1757
UniProt Accession
TLR7_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:15633
GenAtlas
TLR9
GeneCards
TLR9
GenBank Gene Database
AF259262
GenBank Protein Database
8099652
Guide to Pharmacology
1759
UniProt Accession
TLR9_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:13557
GenAtlas
ACE2
GeneCards
ACE2
GenBank Gene Database
AF291820
GenBank Protein Database
9802433
Guide to Pharmacology
1614
UniProt Accession
ACE2_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:2637
GenAtlas
CYP3A4
GeneCards
CYP3A4
GenBank Gene Database
M18907
Guide to Pharmacology
1337
UniProt Accession
CP3A4_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:2625
GenAtlas
CYP2D6
GeneCards
CYP2D6
GenBank Gene Database
M20403
GenBank Protein Database
181350
Guide to Pharmacology
1329
UniProt Accession
CP2D6_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:2622
GenAtlas
CYP2C8
GeneCards
CYP2C8
GenBank Gene Database
M17397
Guide to Pharmacology
1325
UniProt Accession
CP2C8_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:399
GenAtlas
ALB
GeneCards
ALB
GenBank Gene Database
V00494
GenBank Protein Database
28590
UniProt Accession
ALBU_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:8498
GenAtlas
ORM1
GeneCards
ORM1
GenBank Gene Database
X02544
GenBank Protein Database
757907
UniProt Accession
A1AG1_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:8499
GeneCards
ORM2
GenBank Gene Database
BC015964
GenBank Protein Database
16359000
UniProt Accession
A1AG2_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:40
GenAtlas
ABCB1
GeneCards
ABCB1
GenBank Gene Database
M14758
GenBank Protein Database
307180
Guide to Pharmacology
768
UniProt Accession
MDR1_HUMAN
HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
HGNC:10956
GeneCards
SLCO1A2
GenBank Gene Database
U21943
GenBank Protein Database
885978
Guide to Pharmacology
1219
UniProt Accession
SO1A2_HUMAN
International reference pricing
7 formulations
Reference pricing from DrugBank. Prices are indicative and may not reflect current UK costs.
From $0.35/tablet
To $4.80/g
Apo-Hydroxyquine 200 mg Tablet
$0.35/tablet
Mylan-Hydroxychloroquine 200 mg Tablet
$0.35/tablet
Plaquenil Sulfate 200 mg Tablet
$0.66/tablet
Hydroxychloroquine 200 mg tablet
$1.17/tablet
Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate 200 mg tablet
$1.28/tablet
Source: DrugBank. Used under CC BY-NC 4.0 academic licence for non-commercial purposes.
DrugBank citations
If you use DrugBank data in your research, please cite the following publications:
Knox C., Wilson M., Klinger C.M., et al
DrugBank 6.
0: the DrugBank Knowledgebase for 2024
Nucleic Acids Res. 2024 Jan 552(D1):D1265-D1275
Wishart D.S., Feunang Y.D., Guo A.C., et al
DrugBank 5.
0: a major update to the DrugBank database for 2018
Nucleic Acids Res. 2017 Nov 846(D1):D1074-D1082
Show earlier publications
Law V., Knox C., Djoumbou Y., et al
DrugBank 4.
0: shedding new light on drug metabolism
Nucleic Acids Res. 2014 Jan 142(1):D1091-7
Knox C., Law V., Jewison T., et al
DrugBank 3.
0: a comprehensive resource for 'omics' research on drugs
Nucleic Acids Res. 2011 Jan39(Database issue):D1035-41
Wishart D.S., Knox C., Guo A.C., et al
DrugBank: a knowledgebase for drugs, drug actions and drug targets.
Nucleic Acids Research
2008 Jan36(Database issue):D901-6
Wishart D.S., Knox C., Guo A.C., et al
DrugBank: a comprehensive resource for in silico drug discovery and exploration.
Nucleic Acids Research
2006 Jan 134(Database issue):D668-72
Source: go.drugbank.comCC BY-NC 4.0
Updated 26 days ago(8 Mar 2026)